This article covers the events of, reaction to, and historical legacy of Roman Emperor Constantine I's legalization, legitimization, and conversion to Christianity

Christianity's status in the empire before the Edict of Milan

Contrary to popular imagery, hunting Christians was not the first priority of the Roman Empire. Only under the specific direction of reigning emperors and at times of particular crisis (which were put down to the Christians not worshipping the state gods) were persecutions enforced:

• Nero.
  
• Septimius Severus (193-211) ordered provincial governors to round up Christians and punish them according to the local governor's preference.
  
• Decius launched the first Empire wide persecution against Christians in 250, but military concerns soon led to a loss of interest and the persecution was stopped.
  
• Valerian had led Decius' persecution and in 257 he re-enacted the original edict and in 258 added more stringent measures that targeted clergy with summary execution.
  
• Alexander Severus, who was friendly to the Christian movement and built a shrine to Jesus in his own home next to his shrines to the Roman gods.
  
• The Great Persecution 303-311 of Diocletian (251–312?, r.284-305) was the most extreme; he ordered Christian buildings (and the homes of Christians) torn down, their sacred books collected and burned, and Christians themselves were denied the protection offered other citizens by Roman law. Christians were arrested, tortured, mutilated, burned, starved, and forced to gladiatorial contests to amuse spectators. His successor Galerius (250-311, r.305-311) was responsible for the more draconian aspects of this persecution, and some argue that it was he who persuaded Diocletian to launch the persecution after the success of the persecution against the Manichees, a religion based in Persia, then a resurgent threat to the Empire's Eastern border.
  

In the end, many Christians kept their religion to themselves even during times of peace, because it was all too likely that the peace would soon be replaced by violence, and that those who had revealed themselves as Christians might be remembered as such during later trials

Constantine's conversion

Sincerity?

Constantine is best known for being the first Roman Emperor to embrace Christianity, although he may have continued in his pre-Christian beliefs as well, and some scholars doubt the historicity of his conversion, because even Church tradition argued that he was not baptised until his deathbed, and it was only witnessed by the same Christian leaders that made the subsequent claims of his conversion. In the eyes of many Christian apologists that delay islikely to be linked to a then widely held belief that only pre-baptismal sins could not be forgiven, so many postponed baptism as long as they could.

Constantine even turned to preaching in later life, giving his own sermons in the palace before his court and invited crowds, preaching harmony at first, but gradually turning more confrontational with the old pagan ways. The reason for this later "change of heart" remains conjectural.

Constantine's conversion, by Rubens.

Constantine's vision

The traditional story of Constantine's conversion is presented as Constantine seeing an omen in the sky whilst marching along with his troops — in front of the sun, the shape of an ambigram cross with two Greek letters, chi and rho (the first two letters of the name of Jesus Christ in Greek) and the inscription In hoc signo vinces (with/in this sign, you will conquer) before his victory in the Battle of Milvian Bridge on October 28, 312.

Either upon seeing this vision or upon being instructed to use the emblem he had just seen as a standard in a dream afterwards [citation needed], Constantine is said to have instituted a new standard to be carried into battle, the labarum, which many Christians see as a purely Christian symbol, though the other major religion of the time - of Sol Invictus - also used a similar symbol.

There are at least three different surviving ancient versions of this battle in greater detail, not all of them are by prominent Christian apologists:

Panegyric of Constantine, sees the vision as from Apollo as Constantine's patron [citation needed]

Lactantius, Of the manner in which the persecutors died, 44;

Eusebius of Caesarea, The life of Constantine, 24-31;

Zosimus, New History, 2 (43,44) (this version seems to have numerous owls as an omen of victory, and is by a hostile pagan).

It should be noted that historical sources of the 4th century Roman Empire seem to be unusually rich in omens, magic, hexes and spells, while lacking in critical inquiry. A suspicion of literacy and higher learning which began at least a century before had grown. These may have been the results of the fear and high mortality rates caused by the first and second outbreak of the Antonine Plague (165 - 180 and 251 - 266 respectively).

Other influences

Family influence is also thought to account for Constantine's later, more personal adoption of Christianity: Helena is said to be "probably born a Christian" though virtually nothing is known of her background, save that her mother was the daughter of an innkeeper and her father a successful soldier, a career that excluded overt Christians. Helena became known later in life for numerous pilgrimages.

Along with his co-Emperor Licinius, Constantine was the first to grant Christianity the status of an allowed religion (religio licita). Their so-called Edict of Milan of 313 removed penalties for professing Christianity , under which many had been martyred in previous persecutions of Christians (ie legalized it), and returned confiscated Church property. However, it neither made paganism illegal nor made Christianity a state-sponsored religion, but instead granted religious freedom.

There is no historical evidence that an Edict of Milan was ever issued as a concrete or formal document [citation needed]. Licinius after returning to his Eastern portion of the Empire, notes that he had agreed certain matters about religious tolerance with Constantine. He does not mention an Edict of Milan and we have no surviving writing from Constantine on this topic. Nevertheless, the term Edict of Milan is a good shorthand to signify the new policy of religious tolerance, so is still used even by scholars who doubts its existence.

Public office

After the Edict, new avenues were opened to Christians, including the right to compete with pagan Romans in the traditional cursus honorum for high government positions, and greater acceptance into general civil society.

Constantine respected cultivation, and his court was composed of older, respected, and honored men. Leading Roman families that refused Christianity were denied positions of power, yet pagans still received appointments, even up to the end of his life, and two-thirds of his top government was non-Christian.[1]

Army

Considered a critical component of Roman society, the army was a prime target for conversion. Exerting his absolute power, Constantine had the army recite his composed Latin prayer in an attempt to convert them to Christianity, which failed. It was unpopular in the army both because it accepted women, and because the soldiers generally were members of other religions such as those of Mithras and Isis.

Church building

He began a large building program of churches in the Holy Land, which while greatly expanding the faith also allowed considerable increase in the power and wealth of the clergy. New churches were allowed to be built, often under Constantine's (or his mother Helena's) patronage, under which the church prospered. He gave the Lateran Palace to the Pope, ordered the building of:

• in the Holy Land:
  
  • the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem
    
  • Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem
    
• in Rome:
  
  • St. Peter's Basilica
    
  • an oratory now the Basilica di San Lorenzo fuori le Mura
    
  • Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls
    
• in Constantinople
  
  • Hagia Sophia
    
  • the Church of the Holy Apostles where he was entombed.
    

Clergy

The clergy were patronised by Constantine, and received legal perks. Christian leadership became increasingly bold — Christian bishops became prominent and took aggressive public stances that were unheard of among other religions, drawing a hostile pagan reaction and the outlawing of public Proselytism.

Internal church controversy

Christianity's new status meant that church controversies, lively within the Christian communities since the mid-2nd century, now flared (often with violent acts) into public schisms — see, for example, the Donatist schism in Africa. Constantine, believing himself divinely appointed, saw quelling religious disorder as the divinely-appointed emperor's duty. He therefore called the 314 Council of Arles against the Donatists and, after becoming Emperor of the East, the first Ecumenical Council: the First Council of Nicaea (May 20 - July 25, 325), to settle some of the doctrinal problems plaguing Early Christianity, notably Arianism and Quartodecimanism.

Legal reforms

Constantine's laws enforced and reflected his Christian reforms:

• Crucifixion was abolished for reasons of Christian piety, but was replaced with hanging, to show there was Roman law and justice.
  
• Easter could be publicly celebrated.
  
• On March 7, 321, Sunday was declared the official day of rest, on which markets were banned and public offices were closed (CJ 3.12.2). (except for the purpose of freeing slaves). However, there were no restrictions on farming work (which was the work of the great majority of the population).[2]
  

Some were even humane in the modern sense, possibly originating in his Christianity:

• A prisoner was no longer to be kept in total darkness, but must be given the outdoors and daylight.
  
• A condemned man was allowed to die in the arena, but he could not be branded on his "heavenly beautified" face, just on the feet (because God made man in His image).
  
• Gladiatorial games were ordered to be eliminated in 325, although this had little real effect.
  
• A slave master's rights were limited, but a slave could still be beaten to death.
  

Opposing paganism?

Neither the Edict nor later Constantinian legislation outlawed paganism. However,

"From Pagan temples Constantine had his statue removed. The repair of Pagan temples that had decayed was forbidden. These funds were given to the favored Christian clergy. Offensive forms of worship, either Christian or Pagan, were suppressed. At the dedication of Constantinople in 330 a ceremony half Pagan and half Christian was performed, in the market place, the Cross of Christ was placed over the head of the Sun-God's chariot [with]... a singing of hymns."[3]

Pagans were also still wary of Christians for their public refusal to "sacrifice and build idols" (which some modern writers see as an oath of allegiance). Consistent with the Roman idea that they ruled by the favor of the gods, refusal to build idols was seen as something that might easily bring upon all the Roman people the loss of the divine favor and protection. In hoc signo vinco was an attempt to show that this new god also gave Rome divine protection.

Also, as Christianity began to move from a position of toleration to one of preference after Constantine, followers of the old religion turned to appeals to the state to protect their own traditions. For example, in 340, when the Altar of Victory was desecrated and removed from its place of honor in the Senate, the Senate deputized Quintus Aurelius Symmachus, prefect of Rome, to appeal to the Emperor for its return. In his plea for freedom of religion, Symmachus publicly characterized (possibly for his own ends or with rose tinted spectacles, possibly with justification) the late Emperor Constantine's policy thus:

"[Constantine] diminished none of the privileges of the sacred virgins, he filled the priestly offices with nobles, he did not refuse the cost of the Roman ceremonies, and following the rejoicing Senate through all the streets of the eternal city, he contentedly beheld the shrines with unmoved countenance, he read the names of the gods inscribed on the pediments, he enquired about the origin of the temples, and expressed admiration for their builders. Although he himself followed another religion, he maintained its own for the empire, for everyone has his own customs, everyone his own rites. The divine mind has distributed different guardians and different cults to different cities. As souls are separately given to infants as they are born, so to peoples the genius of their destiny." (Possible Christian insertion in italics.)

—Medieval sourcebook: "The Memorial of Symmachus, prefect of the City". (The Memorial has been emended to address three emperors, Valentinian II (died 392), Theodosius I, and Arcadius. Arcadius was named co-ruler of his father and Augustus in January, 383. So the address to the three Augusti could have been written anywhere between 383 and 392. There may be Christian adulterations of the text. The reply of Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, is appended, which is highly revealing in the character of his argument in rebuttal.)

See: Diocletian's Edicts against the Christians, Galerius Maximianus, and Lactantius' Of the Manner in which the Persecutors Died, Chapters 21-24). (MacMullen, 1990 & 1966, Wilken, 1984)

Constantine and the Jews

Constantine instituted several legislative measures regarding the Jews: they were forbidden to own Christian slaves or to circumcise their slaves. Conversion of Christians to Judaism was outlawed. Congregations for religious services were restricted, but Jews were allowed to enter Jerusalem on Tisha B'Av, the anniversary of the destruction of the Temple. Constantine also supported the separation of the date of Easter from the Jewish Passover (see also Quartodecimanism), stating in his letter after the First Council of Nicaea: "... it appeared an unworthy thing that in the celebration of this most holy feast we should follow the practice of the Jews, who have impiously defiled their hands with enormous sin, and are, therefore, deservedly afflicted with blindness of soul. ... Let us then have nothing in common with the detestable Jewish crowd; for we have received from our Saviour a different way." [4]. Theodoret's Ecclesiastical History 1.9 records the Epistle of the Emperor Constantine addressed to those Bishops who were not present at the Council: "It was, in the first place, declared improper to follow the custom of the Jews in the celebration of this holy festival, because, their hands having been stained with crime, the minds of these wretched men are necessarily blinded. ... Let us, then, have nothing in common with the Jews, who are our adversaries. ... avoiding all contact with that evil way. ... who, after having compassed the death of the Lord, being out of their minds, are guided not by sound reason, but by an unrestrained passion, wherever their innate madness carries them. ... a people so utterly depraved. ... Therefore, this irregularity must be corrected, in order that we may no more have any thing in common with those parricides and the murderers of our Lord. ... no single point in common with the perjury of the Jews." [5]

Reactions and reflection

Persian reaction

Beyond the limes, east of the Euphrates, the Sassanid rulers of the Persian Empire had usually tolerated their Christians. A letter supposedly from Constantine to Shapur II (both lived and reigned from 310 to 379), written in c. 324 urged him to protect the Christians in his realm. With the edicts of toleration in the Roman Empire, Christians in Persia would now be regarded as allies of Persia's ancient enemy, and were thus persecuted. Shapur II wrote to his generals:

You will arrest Simon, chief of the Christians. You will keep him until he signs this document and consents to collect for us a double tax and double tribute from the Christians … for we Gods have all the trials of war and they have nothing but repose and pleasure. They inhabit our territory and agree with Caesar, our enemy. (quoted in Freya Stark, Rome on the Euphrates 1967, p. 375)

The Sassanids were perennially at war with Rome, (which incidentally raises further doubt on the authenticity of this letter). Christians were now suspected for potential treachery. The "Great Persecution" of the Persian Christian churches occurred in a later period, 340 to 363, after the Persian Wars that reopened upon Constantine's death. In 344 came the martyrdom of Catholicos Shimun bar Sabbae, with five bishops and 100 priests.

Historical reflections on Constantine's actions

Christian historians ever since Lactantius have adhered to the view that Constantine "adopted" Christianity as a kind of replacement for the official Roman paganism. Though the document called the "Donation of Constantine" was proved a forgery (though not until the 15th century, when the stories of Constantine's conversion were long-established "facts") it was attributed as documenting the conversion of the Roman Empire to Christianity for centuries. Even Christian skeptics have accepted this formulation, though seeing Constantine's policy as a political one, unifying and strengthening the Empire, rather than a spiritual move. Still the Edict of Milan indicated that reverence to the divine, as shown by past events, was for the good of the Roman Empire. The Roman Emperor has become more responsible to the divine for giving religious guidance to its people than in the past.

Despite the questions surrounding Constantine, he is celebrated as a major Saint of Eastern Orthodoxy, together with his mother Helena (both feasted on 21 May). The emperor is not only considered an example of a "Christian monarch" (isapostolos - "equal to the Apostles"), he is associated, albeit in retrospect, with the idea of a "Second Rome" - the Byzantine one.

Mosaic in Hagia Sophia, Constantinople, c. 1000

Isapostolos, 13th Apostle
Born Feb 27, 272 in Niš
Died May 22, 337 in Nicomedia
Venerated in Orthodox Churches, Eastern Catholic Churches, Acta Sanctorum

Major shrine Church of the Holy Apostles

Feast May 21

Attributes In hoc signo vinces, Labarum

Troparion From the Byzantine Menaion Your servant Constantine, O Lord and only Lover of Man, beheld the figure of the Cross in the Heavens; and like Paul (not having received his call from men, but as an Apostle among rulers set by Your hand over the royal city) he preserved lasting peace through the prayers of the Theotokos.

Kontakion From the Byzantine Menaion With his mother Helen, Constantine today brings to light the precious Cross: the shame of unbelievers, the weapon of orthodox Christians against their enemies; for it is manifest for us as a great and fearful sign in struggle!

Disputed "When certain oriental writers call Constantine equal to the Apostles, they do not know what they are saying; and to speak of him as a saint is a profanation of the word." -Barthold Georg Niebuhr[1]

References

1. ^ MacMullen 1969,1984; New Catholic Encyclopedia, 1908.
   
2. ^ MacMullen 1969; New Catholic Encyclopedia, 1908; Theodosian Code.
   
3. ^ New Catholic Encyclopedia, 1908
   
4. ^ Life of Constantine Vol. III Ch. XVIII by Eusebius
   
5. ^ The Epistle of the Emperor Constantine, concerning the matters transacted at the Council, addressed to those Bishops who were not present