Multi-wavelength anomalous diffraction (sometimes Multi-wavelength anomalous dispersion; abbreviated MAD) is a technique used in X-ray crystallography that facilitates the determination of the three-dimensional structure of biological macromolecules (e.g. DNA, drug receptors) via solution of the phase problem.[1]
MAD was developed by Wayne Hendrickson while working as a postdoctoral researcher under Jerome Karle at the United States Naval Research Laboratory.[2] The mathematics upon which MAD (and progenitor Single wavelength anomalous dispersion) were based were developed by Jerome Karle, work for which he was awarded the 1985 Nobel Prize in Chemistry (along with Herbert Hauptman).
See also
Anomalous Dispersion
Multi-wavelength Anomalous Dispersion (MAD)
Single wavelength anomalous dispersion (SAD)
Isomorphous Replacement
Two methods for providing the needed phasing information by introducing heavy atoms into isomorphous crystals:
Multiple isomorphous replacement (MIR); and
Single isomorphous replacement with anomalous signal (SIRAS)
Other
Anomalous scattering
Anomalous X-ray scattering
Patterson map
References
Hendrickson W, Ogata C (1997). "Phase determination from multiwavelength anomalous diffraction measurements". Methods in Enzymology. 276: 494–523. doi:10.1016/S0076-6879(97)76074-9. ISBN 978-0-12-182177-7. PMID 27799111.
Hendrickson WA (1985). "Analysis of Protein Structure from Diffraction Measurement at Multiple Wavelengths". Transactions of the ACA. 21.
Further reading
Hendrickson WA (1985). "Analysis of Protein Structure from Diffraction Measurement at Multiple Wavelengths". Transactions of the ACA. 21.
Karle J (1980). "Some Developments in Anomalous Dispersion for the Structural Investigation of Macromolecular Systems in Biology". International Journal of Quantum Chemistry: Quantum Biology Symposium. 7: 357–367. doi:10.1002/qua.560180734.
Karle J (1989). "Linear Algebraic Analyses of Structures with One Predominant Type of Anomalous Scatterer". Acta Crystallographica A. 45 (4): 303–307. doi:10.1107/s0108767388013042. PMID 2559755.
Pahler A, Smith JL, Hendrickson WA (1990). "A Probability Representation for Phase Information from Multiwavelength Anomalous Dispersion". Acta Crystallographica A. 46 (7): 537–540. doi:10.1107/s0108767390002379.
Terwilliger TC (1994). "MAD Phasing: Bayesian Estimates of FA". Acta Crystallographica D. 50: 11–16. doi:10.1107/s0907444993008224.
Terwilliger TC (1994). "MAD Phasing: Treatment of Dispersive Differences as Isomorphous Replacement Information". Acta Crystallographica D. 50 (Pt 1): 17–23. doi:10.1107/s0907444993008236. PMID 15299472.
Fourme R, Shepard W, Kahn R, l'Hermite G, de La Sierra IL (1995). "The Multiwavelength Anomalous Solvent Contrast (MASC) Method in Macrocolecular Crystallography". Journal of Synchrotron Radiation. 2 (Pt 1): 36–48. doi:10.1107/S0909049594006680. PMID 16714785.
de la Fortelle E, Bricogne G (1997). "Maximum-Likelihood Heavy-Atom Parameter Refinement for Multiple Isomorphous Replacement and Multiwavelength Anomalous Diffraction Methods". Methods in Enzymology. 276: 472–494. doi:10.1016/S0076-6879(97)76073-7. ISBN 978-0-12-182177-7. PMID 27799110.
Hendrickson WA, Ogata CM (1997). "Phase Determination from Multiwavelength Anomalous Diffraction Measurements". Methods in Enzymology. 276: 494–523. doi:10.1016/S0076-6879(97)76074-9. ISBN 978-0-12-182177-7. PMID 27799111.
Bella J, Rossmann MG (1998). "A General Phasing Algorithm for Multiple MAD and MIR Data". Acta Crystallographica D. 54 (2): 159–174. doi:10.1107/s0907444997010469. PMID 9761882.
Guss JM, Merritt EA, Phizackerley RP, Hedman B, Murata M, Hodgson KO, Freeman HC (1989). "Phase determination by multiple-wavelength X-ray diffraction: crystal structure of a basic blue copper protein from cucumbers". Science. 241 (4867): 806–811. Bibcode:1988Sci...241..806G. doi:10.1126/science.3406739. PMID 3406739.
Computer programs
The SSRL Absorption Package — Brennan S, Cowan PL (1992). "A suite of programs for calculating x-ray absorption, reflection and diffraction performance for a variety of materials at arbitrary wavelengths". Review of Scientific Instruments. 63 (1): 850. Bibcode:1992RScI...63..850B. doi:10.1063/1.1142625.
CHOOCH — Evans G, Pettifer RF (2001). "CHOOCH: a program for deriving anomalous-scattering factors from X-ray fluorescence spectra". Journal of Applied Crystallography. 34: 82–86. doi:10.1107/S0021889800014655.
Shake-and-Bake (SnB) — Smith GD, Nagar B, Rini JM, Hauptman HA, Blessing RH (1998). "The use of Snb to determine an anomalous scattering substructure". Acta Crystallographica D. 54 (Pt 5): 799–804. doi:10.1107/S0907444997018805. PMID 9757093.
SHELX — Sheldrick GM (1998). "SHELX: applications to macromolecules". In S Fortier (ed.). Direct methods for solving macromolecular structures. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 401–411. ISBN 0-7923-4949-0.
Tutorials and examples
Evans, Gwyndaf (October 1994). "The method of Multiple wavelength Anomalous Diffraction using Synchrotron Radiation at optimal X-ray energies: Application to Protein Crystallography". PhD Thesis. University of Warwick.
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