The Lennard-Jones potential (also termed the LJ potential, 6-12 potential, or 12-6 potential) is a mathematically simple model that approximates the intermolecular potential energy between a pair of neutral atoms or molecules as metals or cyclic alkanes.[1][2] This interatomic potential emerged from Max Born's treatise on lattice enthalpies[3] and was elaborated in 1924 by John Lennard-Jones.[4] A common expression of the LJ potential is
\( {\displaystyle V_{\text{LJ}}=4\varepsilon \left[\left({\frac {\sigma }{r}}\right)^{12}-\left({\frac {\sigma }{r}}\right)^{6}\right]=\varepsilon \left[\left({\frac {r_{\text{m}}}{r}}\right)^{12}-2\left({\frac {r_{\text{m}}}{r}}\right)^{6}\right],} \)
where \( \varepsilon \) is the depth of the potential well, σ {\displaystyle \sigma } \sigma is the finite distance at which the inter-particle potential is zero, r is the distance between the particles, and r \( r_m\) is the distance at which the potential reaches its minimum. At r m {\displaystyle r_{m}} r_m, the potential function has the value − ε {\displaystyle \varepsilon } \varepsilon . The distances are related as \( {\displaystyle r_{m}=2^{1/6}\sigma \approx 1.122\sigma } \) . These parameters can be fitted to reproduce experimental data on lattice parameters ( \( r_m \)), surface energies ( \( \varepsilon \) ), or accurate quantum chemistry calculations.[2] Due to its computational simplicity and interpretability, the Lennard-Jones potential is used extensively in computer simulations. It is also part of more detailed interatomic potentials such as CHARMM,[5] AMBER,[6] OPLS-AA,[7] CVFF,[8] DREIDING,[9] and IFF.[10]
The Lennard-Jones potential is also used with different exponents, for example, in 9-6 form:
\( {\displaystyle V_{\text{LJ}}=\varepsilon \left[2\left({\frac {r_{\text{m}}}{r}}\right)^{9}-3\left({\frac {r_{\text{m}}}{r}}\right)^{6}\right]}, \)
in force fields such as CFF,[11] PCFF,[12] and IFF.[10] The interpretation of \( r_m \) as atomic diameter and \( \varepsilon \) as polarizability and a measure for internal cohesion is the same as for the 12-6 Lennard-Jones potential.[2]
Explanation
The \( {\displaystyle r^{12}} \)term, which is the repulsive term, describes Pauli repulsion at short ranges due to overlapping electron orbitals, and the \( {\displaystyle r^{6}} \) term, which is the attractive long-range term, describes attraction at long ranges (van der Waals force, or dispersion force).
Differentiating the LJ potential with respect to r gives an expression for the net inter-molecular force between 2 molecules. This inter-molecular force may be attractive or repulsive, depending on the value of r. When r is very small, the molecules repel each other.
Whereas the functional form of the attractive term has a clear physical justification, the repulsive term has no theoretical justification. It is used because it approximates the Pauli repulsion well and is more convenient due to the relative computing efficiency of calculating \( {\displaystyle r^{12}} \) as the square of \( {\displaystyle r^{6}} \).
The LJ potential is a relatively good approximation. Due to its simplicity, it is often used to describe the properties of gases and to model dispersion and overlap interactions in molecular models. It is especially accurate for noble gas atoms and is a good approximation at long and short distances for neutral atoms and molecules.
The lowest-energy arrangement of an infinite number of atoms described by a Lennard-Jones potential is a hexagonal close-packing. On raising temperature, the lowest-free-energy arrangement becomes cubic close packing, and then liquid. Under pressure, the lowest-energy structure switches between cubic and hexagonal close packing.[13] Real materials include body-centered cubic structures also.[14]
The Lennard-Jones (12,6) potential was improved by the Buckingham potential (exp-6) later proposed by Richard Buckingham, incorporating an extra parameter and the repulsive part is replaced by an exponential function:[15]
\( {\displaystyle V_{\text{B}}=\gamma \left[e^{-r/r_{1}}-\left({\frac {r_{0}}{r}}\right)^{6}\right].} \)
Other more recent methods, such as the Stockmayer potential, describe the interaction of molecules more accurately. Quantum chemistry methods, Møller–Plesset perturbation theory, coupled cluster method, or full configuration interaction can give extremely accurate results, but require large computing cost.
Alternative expressions
There are many different ways to formulate the Lennard-Jones potential. Some common forms follow.
AB form
This form is a simplified formulation that is used by some simulation software:
\( {\displaystyle V_{\text{LJ}}(r)={\frac {A}{r^{12}}}-{\frac {B}{r^{6}}},} \)
where, \( A=4\varepsilon \sigma ^{12} \) and \( B=4\varepsilon \sigma ^{6 \)}. Conversely, \( \sigma ={\sqrt[{6}]{\frac {A}{B}}} \) and \( \varepsilon ={\frac {B^{2}}{4A}} \). This is the form in which Lennard-Jones wrote the 12-6 potential.[16]
A more mathematically general form, which contains an extra variable n is
\( {\displaystyle V_{\text{LJ}}(r)=\varepsilon \left(\left({\frac {r_{0}}{r}}\right)^{2n}-2\left({\frac {r_{0}}{r}}\right)^{n}\right),} \)
where ε {\displaystyle \varepsilon } \varepsilon is the bonding energy of the molecule (the energy required to separate the atoms). The exponent n could be related to the spring constant k (at \( r_{0} \), where \( {\displaystyle V=-\varepsilon } \) ) as
\({\displaystyle k=2\varepsilon \left({\frac {n}{r_{0}}}\right)^{2},} \)
from where n {\displaystyle n} n can be calculated if k is known. Normally the harmonic states are known, \( {\displaystyle \Delta E=\hbar \omega } \), where \( \omega ={\sqrt {k/m}} \) . n can also be related to the group velocity in a crystal, v \( {\displaystyle v_{\text{g}}} \)
\( {\displaystyle v_{\text{g}}={\frac {a\cdot n}{r_{0}}}{\sqrt {\frac {\varepsilon }{m}}},} \)
where a is the lattice distance, and m is the mass of a particle.
Truncated and shifted form
To save computing time and satisfy the minimum image convention when using periodic boundary conditions, the Lennard-Jones potential is often truncated at a cut-off distance of \( {\displaystyle r_{\mathrm {c} }=2.5\sigma } \), where
\( {\displaystyle \displaystyle V_{\text{LJ}}(r_{\text{c}})=V_{\text{LJ}}(2.5\sigma )=4\varepsilon \left[\left({\frac {\sigma }{2.5\sigma }}\right)^{12}-\left({\frac {\sigma }{2.5\sigma }}\right)^{6}\right]\approx -0.0163\varepsilon ,} \) (1)
i.e., at \( {\displaystyle r_{\mathrm {c} }=2.5\sigma } \), the Lennard-Jones potential VLJ is about 1/60 of its minimum value, \( \varepsilon \) (the depth of the potential well). Beyond \( {\displaystyle r_{\text{c}}} \), the truncated potential is set to zero.
To avoid a jump discontinuity at \( {\displaystyle r_{\text{c}}} \), the LJ potential must be shifted upward a little, so that the truncated potential would be zero exactly at the cut-off distance, \( {\displaystyle r_{\text{c}}} \).
For clarity, let \( {\displaystyle V_{\text{LJ}}} \) denote the LJ potential as defined above, i.e.,
\({\displaystyle \displaystyle V_{\text{LJ}}(r)=4\varepsilon \left[\left({\frac {\sigma }{r}}\right)^{12}-\left({\frac {\sigma }{r}}\right)^{6}\right].} \)
(2)
Then the truncated Lennard-Jones potential \( {\displaystyle V_{{\text{LJ}}_{\text{trunc}}}} \) is defined as follows[17]
\( {\displaystyle \displaystyle V_{{\text{LJ}}_{\text{trunc}}}(r):={\begin{cases}V_{\text{LJ}}(r)-V_{\text{LJ}}(r_{\text{c}})&{\text{for }}r\leq r_{\text{c}}\\0&{\text{for }}r>r_{\text{c}}.\end{cases}}} \) (3)
It can be easily verified that VLJtrunc(rc) = 0, thus eliminating the jump discontinuity at \( {\displaystyle r=r_{\mathrm {c} }} \). Although the value of the (unshifted) Lennard Jones potential at \( {\displaystyle r=r_{\mathrm {c} }=2.5\sigma } \) is rather small, the effect of the truncation can be significant; for instance, on the gas–liquid critical point.[18][19] The potential energy can often be corrected for this effect in a mean-field manner by adding so-called tail corrections.[20] The stability of crystal structure is extremely sensitive to the truncation: a wide variety of close packed stackings may have the lowest energy.[21]
Extensions for polarizability
Lennard-Jones potentials have been combined with bonded potentials to describe virtual electrons and image charges in metals.[22] The combined potential reproduces lattice parameters, surface energies, the complete image potentials, hydration energies, and mechanical properties without additional fit parameters in higher accuracy than density functional theory calculations.
Dimensionless (reduced) units
LJ dimensionless (reduced) units Property Symbol Reduced form
Length \( r^{{*}} \) \( {\displaystyle {\frac {r}{\sigma }}} \)
Time \({\displaystyle t^{*}} \) \( {\displaystyle {\frac {t}{\tau }}=t{\sqrt {\frac {\epsilon }{m\sigma ^{2}}}}} \)
Temperature \( T^{*} \) \( {\displaystyle {\frac {k_{B}T}{\epsilon }}} \)
Force \( f^{*} \) \( {\displaystyle {\frac {f\sigma }{\epsilon }}} \)
Energy \( {\displaystyle \phi ^{*}} \) \( {\displaystyle {\frac {\phi }{\epsilon }}} \)
Pressure \( P^{*} \) \( {\displaystyle {\frac {P\sigma ^{3}}{\epsilon }}} \)
Number density \( {\displaystyle N^{*}} \) \( {\displaystyle N\sigma ^{3}} \)
Density \( \rho^{*} \) \( {\displaystyle \rho \sigma ^{3}} \)
Surface tension \( {\displaystyle \gamma ^{*}} \) \( {\displaystyle {\frac {\gamma \sigma ^{2}}{\epsilon }}} \)
Dimensionless units can be defined based on the Lennard-Jones potential, which are convenient for molecular dynamics simulations. From a numerical point, the advantages of dimensionless units include computing values which are closer to unity, using simplified equations and being able to easily scale the results.[23]
When the Lennard-Jones potential is used for molecular dynamics simulations, the most convenient dimensionless units are obtained by choosing length σ, mass m and energy ε as the scaling factors for the various physical properties.[23]
Limitations
The LJ potential has only two parameters (A and B), which determine the length and energy scales. The potential is therefore limited in how accurately it can be fitted to the properties of any real material.
The bonding of the LJ potential has no directionality: the potential is spherically symmetric.
The sixth-power term models effectively the dipole–dipole interactions due to electron dispersion in noble gases (London dispersion forces), but it does not represent other kinds of bonding well. The twelfth-power term appearing in the potential is chosen for its ease of calculation for simulations (by squaring the sixth-power term) and is not theoretically or physically based.
The potential diverges when two atoms approach one another. This may create instabilities that require special treatment in molecular dynamics simulations.
12-6-4 Lennard-Jones potential for charged particles
For simulations of charged particles, e.g. ions, an additional \( r^{4} \) term has been proposed to account for dipole interaction,[24][25] giving rise to a so-called 12-6-4 potential.
\( {\displaystyle V_{\text{12-6-4-LJ}}=\varepsilon \left[\left({\frac {r_{\text{m}}}{r}}\right)^{12}-2\left({\frac {r_{\text{m}}}{r}}\right)^{6}\right]-{\frac {C}{r^{4}}},} \)
where C is a system-dependent constant.
See also
Morse/Long-range potential
Molecular mechanics
Embedded atom model
Morse potential
Force field (chemistry)
Comparison of force field implementations
Heterogenous catalysis
Hydrogen spillover
Physisorption
Virial expansion
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